National security to sustain, there is nothing immoral in surveillance or snooping, the agencies must be empowered with all espionage capacities to do snooping in the larger national interest. The cyber-electronic (CybEL) snooping and counter-snooping capacity of all intelligence services need further strengthening so that the hybrid intent of the adversaries ‘within’ as well as ‘operating from outside’ can remain under smart surveillance- unremitting. Forthrightly, Intelligence Agencies in the country must be encouraged to snoop into all potent forces irrespective of their rank and affiliations in the larger interest of the nation- precisely the way India’s great sage Chanakya has prescribed.
Introduction
The term “snooping” has been streamlined and has come to the official usage in the study of intelligence. The entire methods of surveillance or 'intelligence collection' in combination is now precisely termed as “snooping” with wide academic usages. The act of intelligence collection by the employment of Human Intelligence (HUMINT), Signals Intelligence (SIGINT), Imagery Intelligence (IMINT), Measurement and Signatures Intelligence (MASINT) , Electronics intelligence (ELINT), and Cyber Intelligence together in a much formal sense can be termed as snooping.
The word ‘snooping’ though was of an informal usage, is used in much of technical sense these days. Precisely, snooping now connotes the act of Cyber-Electronic (CybEL) Surveillance. While surveillance encompasses the visual observation and scrutiny of all behaviour including speech and actions of an intended person or ‘of a suspected spy or criminal2’, group or a country3; it by and large connotes the act of “secrets spying” for looking around in order to find out something4 intended with purpose. Snooping can also mean to investigate secretly to ‘collect and report secret information’ from the intended target- that is surveilled upon. In the ‘security studies’ snooping implies the “close observation of a suspected spy or criminal5”; and ‘unauthorised entering’ or ‘entering without knowledge or consent’ to access into the data-set or cyber-electronic (CybEL) system(s) of the target6”.
SNOOPING: AN AUTOPSY OF OPERATION AND INTENT
For safeguarding national and security interests, countries generally employ snooping missions against their foes and adversaries. States and governments generally snoop on individuals or countries to collect information that matters much to them. People, organisations, or countries, those considered averse, are snooped so that their harmful acts can remain under watch and control. States may consider snooping (on individuals, organisations, or countries) to collect information so that it may pre-empt their various plans of aggression like terrorism or other hybrid warfare preferences.
The employment of 21st C. snooping art has transformed beyond the intent and purpose, provided it depends upon the parties and purposes they are employed by. In a global-liberal-parochial-interest-driven world order, for a State, snooping has become the classiest tool for tacitly up-beating its opponents; while for non-State actors, snooping has become the sophisticated instrument to advance their interests- legitimate or illegitimate.
‘Spy-and-snoop’ is the latest option employed by the major powers to keep watch on their allies and adversaries equally. The aim is to gain “political, economic, trade and commercial advantage” while deterring the ambition of their ideological as well as the military adversaries in advance7. Snooping does not consider friends or foes rather it only concentrates on the target and interest. Edward Snowden’s expose, which opened up the USA spying on individuals and its allied countries credence this assumption8.
The great powers like the USA have accepted the fact that “they have been secretly mining data and physically bugging the foreign embassies and premises through the acts of spying-snooping”9 It is also an accepted fact that countries have been doing comprehensive surveillance of individuals, associations, and groups within and outside of their sovereign premises. For a State, in its entire feature of protection endeavour, the act of snooping & counter snooping remains sacrosanct even at the cost of a country or a regime’s desertion.
In the great game of snooping & counter snooping; objectives will always remain intricate as large interest groups are at the driving steers and advancement of national interest is the dominant justification. To the gravity, people in government and establishments including the leading corporates who exercise enormous influence in the power corridors, actively advocate for the employment of similar ploy. This is very much a match to Sun Tzu’s dictum that “use information to influence the adversary by exploiting their vulnerabilities and without fighting to subdue them”10, and this remains the objective of modern-day snooping art. By explanation, this is ‘to exploit the vulnerabilities of all, irrespective of whether the exploited are friends, enemies, allies or partners; and, the objective is to subdue and reign them, and to shape the entire course of interests and narratives that suits to the exploiters’ hegemonic goals11.
CYBER-ELECTRONIC (CybEL) SNOOPING
With the cyber world taking over the physical world, snooping has been transforming into a trailblazer muddying the virtual world extensively. These days, cyber-electronic (CybEL) attacks are largely facilitated by snooping missions. Snooping, employed by the multinational hulks and global powers, has splurged into countries challenging their national interests and compromising their official national security positions12.
The snooping art, being empowered of hybrid cyber-electronic (CybEL) tools to merits, is gradually taking the place of regressive intelligence missions. The purview of CybEL snooping has transformed beyond the job of gathering secret information and intelligence. It is now capable, by the virtue of digital dynamics, of creating deliberate incapacitation or destruction of critical and strategic military, economic or political systems13.
In a competitive interest-driven world order, snooping-trap is that affordable soft weapon, which can be employed for advantage-nevertheless barely with any regressive consequence. This, in a world of anarchical CybEL world disorder that keeps empowering the mala-fide entities thereby making people and countries subject to malicious attacks and CybEL manipulation.
No more, CybEL snooping operation remains limited by States’ control. By the grace of dangerous snooping tools, non-State actors now stand in competition with the State actors and bluff the authority of the nation States. In an ICT-driven ‘CybEL’-steered new world order; CybEL snooping operation does not necessarily comply with the sovereign sanctity and is no more limited by sovereignty compulsion14. Snooping no more remains limited to something that was used by governments for their mere national security purposes. Now, all species of CybEL snooping systems available for both the governments and the non-State parties to subscribe for purposes. For reasons, big corporates and multi-national interest groups widely subscribe to snooping tools for advancing their imperialist purposes.
FOOTPRINT OF FOREIGN SNOOPING NETS IN INDIA
India since independence has remained subject to foreign snooping missions. The mysterious killings of Indian scientists working with sensitive scientific establishments15; the recurring failures of India’s Satellite launch missions; and now the miscarriage in the successful unveiling of the Agni-V Missile system; are some of the glaring incidents and are pervasive throughout. Similar things taking place in different parts of the world can be traced to extra-territorial dubious snooping missions targeting some countries’ national security aspirations16.
Within India as well as in India’s foreign missions abroad, the footprint of foreign snooping tools is remarkable. Very recently, the reports of ‘India’s diplomatic missions being regularly spied upon by foreign intelligence missions17’ came to wider attention. It was found that CybEL snooping at India’s different missions abroad had been continuing while no one could calculate its cessation18.
In recent times, it was the revelation of the Chinese CybEL spying net that had created serious security concerns in India19. China continued systematic CybEL snooping of India through its manufactured gadgets and mobile applications20. Apart from the ordinary Indian citizens, those who were reportedly snooped included the Indian Prime Minister, President, politicians and bureaucrats. Including the VVIPs, there were at least 10,000 Indian citizens reported to have come under Chinese direct snooping and cyber-attacks21. Deeper investigation revealed of the fact that the Chinese CybEL spying-snooping net targeted millions of Indian citizens and the Indian database under its snooping grope. The statistics was so precarious that, the government had to respond with all strength, which was followed by the ban on the Chinese apps and instruments22.
The abysmal objectives of the various foreign interest groups in India are relatively potent. Adversaries and interest groups always play intrigues in which their snooping missions play the dominant role. Also, certain global forces always try to settle their interests in countries like India; and when fail, they employ various methods, tools, and scripts of the conspiracy by the means of counter-snooping operations. It has now come to the picture that extra-territorial powers and interest groups are ever playing their influence in India by the virtue of their snooping missions. With India along with most of her socio-economic sectors, both public and private,are now remaining wide-open to the global market systems. Taking this into pro, the extra-territorial snooping nets have practically interloped each and every sector to intensity their spy-snooping missions23.
Edward J. Snowden’s ‘PRISM24’ revelation that had once shuddered the world was also found to have a deep Indian connection25. While PRISM covered all most all countries globally, it was reported that India also remained a prime target26. So far PRISM snooping is concerned, India “reportedly remained among the top five surveillance targets, in terms of internet data and call records accessed27”. The revelation of powerful snooping projects like the PRISM, Pegasus, and Amnesty International’s Security (counter-snooping) Lab are some of the glaring examples, which credence the pervasive activities of extraterritorial entities ongoing in Indiaby the means of their CybEL snooping networks.
The serious revelation of the foreign CybEL snooping nets has created enough apprehension for the Indian security establishment. Potent CybEL snooping missions are very much present and active in India28. Although India downplays this in public, the fact remained that the country regularly takes up the matter, noiselessly, with the State and non-State parties involved.
Certain recent developments are of particular concern; and these are: first, intrusion of the foreign spying missions into India’s diplomatic establishments; second, the active snooping missions of State actors like that of Chinese; third, the snooping nets of non-State actors operating in India; and the fourth and most seriously, the controversial revelation of Pegasus Project vis-à-vis the exposé of covert counter-intelligence mission of Amnesty International that was ongoing in India; are the issues of staid attention requiring satisfactory investigation.
FROM THE ‘PEGASUS-PROJECT’ SPECTACLE
Pegasus tools of NSO are in larger demand by national security agencies in several countries and remain at the forefront in the global game of snooping and counter-snooping business. “Why Pegasus was under target” by the interest groups like Amnesty International and associates, however, is rejoined with anadulterous revelation. All at once, it was found to the part of the larger conspiracy that was very much resolved of fixing the Indian government along with Israel.
It is the country of origin of ‘Pegasus’ that is “Israel” and the “present government” in India, which were considered to be antagonistic, and therefore the script was aimed at their destabilisation. Although the initial phase of Pegasus project exposure remained twisted, however, the followed investigation into the intent of that exposure spewed off expletive revelation. The revelation of the Pegasus project has turned poles copiously apart the calculated machination of Amnesty International and its associates. Because both these countries are seen as ‘highly nationalistic’ therefore, sensed as hostile.
India and Israel and their governments remain contrary to the Amnesty, the OSF, and their other clusters; and these interest groups being defeated of the “now dominating nationalistic governments29” scripted the Pegasus Project revelation. Though, the “Amnesty International” 30 and “Forbidden Stories” 31 including other corporate media entities played the revelation to the gallery; most seriously and according to Media Research Centre of the US, the multinational interest groups like OSF, which financed the revelation found to have been the honcho in entire conspiring expose32.Indo-France Rafael deal is another bone of contention for these very interest groups behind the conspiring Pegasus depiction. It was found that ‘Sherpa’- a French NGO, which remained an indirect recipient of funds from OSF33and continues its petition on the Indo-France Rafael deal34, is now traced to be the part of the same cluster. Though, their objective of fixing India side by side with Israel with well-crafted CybEL shrewdness, however, were gifted of controverting exposure.
When India has remained subject to extra-territorial spying-snooping missions; few might become successful, others would berevertedwith upsetting outcomes; like that of the ‘well-scripted Pegasus Projectthe way it was ordainedat’vis-à-vis of its ‘adulterous revelation and dubious exposé’. When it comes to the protection of their vested interest, organisations like OSF can float billion-dollar plans to tarnish the government and its programme. In this private-interest-driven corporate world order, countries will often become the victim of multinational treachery where the OSF-like organisations will always play at the front. They will always provide active stimulus in shaping narratives across spheres- similar to the concocted plotcreated of the ‘Pegasus Project’.
When Private entities and MNCs taking over the routine affairs of the nation States; so as to safeguard their interest, they will always hire non-State actors like Amnesty to keep watch on activities of the governments and their people. Most likely, they will also employ snooping as their potent weapon to turn the country’s choices and options in their favour. India, for the reasons, needs to take up the apt course for disciplining the extraterritorial CybEL snooping missions with the desired tooth and nails at her disposal.
Extraterritorial Covert Snooping-Nets in India: Why Pegasus-the Eye-Opener?
The ‘Pegasus Project’ revelation theatrics unescapably opened up the Pandora box of extra-territorial snooping and counter-snooping conspiracies involving India. The level of impact that the snooping tools can play to the gallery with serious transnational implications, has come to the national security contention. In India, it is now an unblemished fact that, the footprint of extra-territorial snooping nets is remarkable and their abysmal objectives are very much potent.
Though with other intensions, Amnesty International did a stage-managed revelation of the Pegasus Project, Amnesty unwrapped of its own proficiency in the business of ‘snooping and counter-snooping’ to the wider world. It is only because of the Pegasus spyware, the game of Amnesty International’s Security Lab has essentiallybeen opened up. It is clear that Amnesty’scovert counter-snooping missions has been active in different countries, wherethe stake of its Security Lab remained pervasive.
It must be noted that it is the Amnesty International’s Security Lab which ensured the so-called Pegasus project revelation35. “Why Amnesty is having a counter-snooping lab” and “what are the intentions” has so far not been countered with; although, it is contended that, unless the spyware developed by the Amnesty Lab had intruded into the gadgets of the same clients under the Pegasus surveillance, it was hardly possible for Amnesty Lab of getting so much information about the play of Pegasus tools.
It is argued that Pegasus-like Spywares are developed with the finest Security tools and used in wild, it was hardly possible for the outsider to even smell its presence in a potential CybEL device. And, going by the counter-intelligence books, it is quite specific that, unless Amnesty Lab’s malware snooped into India’s CybEL space, it could never ascertain the presence of the Pegasus tools in the same. One thing becomes clear, that Amnesty International owns the finest snooping expertise otherwise detecting an Israel tool or decrypting its identity or activities was not so easy.
The modus operandi of the revelation must be quite basic, that it was Amnesty Lab’s snooping malware, which encountered with the Pegasus tool installed in the same gadgets and their encounter necessarily revealed the things. It is argued that one-way detection of gadget-infection with malware does not stand to the logic. And, if the operation of the Pegasus project in India’s CybEL space is real, then the clandestine operation of the Amnesty Lab’s snooping tools in India’s CybEL space also stands real on the same scale.
For reasons, the operation of wild Spywares snooping missions are spiralling. For a country, this makes the security of its CybEL space a paramount concern.
It is contended that unless a country has a stronger and ever-evolving snooping expertise as well as counter-snooping apparatus at its disposal, that country,by no means, remain capable of anti-snooping proficiency and remain competent to bust its adversary’s snooping actions. The way the Amnesty International Lab and its snooping assets played over India’s CybEL space, has necessarily opened up India’s yet-to-evolve state of counter-intelligence expertise and wisdom. It is clear now, that the non-State actors like Amnesty can posea direct challenge to India’s intelligence missions, and for its effective deterrence, India’s counter-intelligence programme is yet to evolve to its fullest potential.
COUNTER-SNOOPING TECHNOLOGY: THE PERSUASIVE PARAMETERS
Today’s technological capabilities take surveillance to new levels; and by the employment of CybEL surveillance technologies,suspected activities of any opponent can be put under optimum surveillance- that without the deployment of Human Intelligence. In the CybEL era, each action, whether it is an individual, organisation, or country, is observable, traceable, and can be recorded36. Therefore, by the employment of CybEL surveillance technologies and tools, enough edge can be achieved on the adversary to subdue it at a time of choice and without firing a shot37.
In the CybEL-subjugated ecosphere, close surveillance has become intrusive than it has been in the past. Access to an adversary’s information systems or gaining remote access into someone’s CybEL space and systems has become much easier38. By the employment of apt CybEL technologies have made counter-intelligence relatively fascinating. However, the option does not remain limited for State parties, and here, the non-State parties are also at equal stake. By the virtue of the counter-snooping technologies, the State, as well as the non-State actors, can advance their tactical position.
India’s Self-reliance: How far?
The fact of the matter is that India is remaining dependent upon foreign technologies including surveillance systems, system expertise, hardware, and software for the development of its CybEL space. So far the case of the development of intelligence infrastructure in country is concerned; reports suggest that, India still remains dependent on foreign parties and has been purchasing security software from several agencies and international vendors. Also in certain cases, the database creation has been left to the foreign vendors to handle. Remaining aware of the fact that the database creation companies have subverted links with extraterritorial intelligence organisations39, there is every possibility that sensitive systems and databases could be exposed to the foreign intelligence agencies or spying cells.YetIndia’s ‘critical data management' and ‘storage system development’ works are still left for the foreign firms to handle40.
The fact of the matter is that, India, in her entire requirement of CybEL space management, remains dependent on third parties’ expertise and systems, although it is an accomplished fact that those suppliers and service providers have their calculated intentions. Further, when a country depends on third parties to build or develop credible intelligence capability, it is quite problematic to keep the entire business of intelligence beyond infestation.
Till the third-party’s systems, servers, expertise, instruments, or tools are at play; enough fissures are left in the CybEL ecosystem. Such fissures become the gateway of vulnerabilities for the extraterritorial and non-State actors, via which their spying malware enter into systems to do CybEL manipulation thus attaining intelligence superiority.
It can be stated that when a country is on an intelligence mission but using a third party’s expertise and tools, that country fails in its mission of accomplishing the intended superiority-whether it is strategic, tactical, or operational so in the very intended mission. For a country, snooping remains good only when that country remains the master of technologies-employed, not the slave. To date, in the great global “snooping and counter snooping Bazar”, India has always remained the client State. To succeed in the counter-intelligence missions, India has yet to develop its self-reliance in intelligence technologies and expertise, and yet to become the frontline player in the global ‘snooping and counter-snooping’schoolyard.
Snooping tools
Certain CybEL tools are designed specifically for snooping operations. In general, Snooping tools, by random use are employed in three stages with pre-intended purposes. First, it is sneaked randomly into public devices as a mere exercise of data collection to understand the trends in the public mind in a target country. At the second stage, to faster the intended snooping, better tools are sneaked into selected targets, which play their tricks of influencing the hearts and minds with a designed method of CybEL manipulation with imposed narrative deliverance. And at the third level, there are shroud snooping tools, which are then installed into the gadgets of the potential opponents to keep eyes and ears on their activities with an objective either to control or perish their choice. This is the great game of snooping, which goes in circulars incessantly, and most of the security establishments as well as the private interest groups now subscribing to the same practice41.
Provided of its affordability and impact factors; State actors, non-States actors, and private parties are growingly subscribing to the CybEL malware. This has made malware a lucrative business with unaccountable developers in the field. The malware market has also similar to the black marketing of conventional weapons involving huge transactions. Reports suggest that the thing of spyware is a multi-million market globally that has emerged to be highly attractive for non-State actors. Although, malware trading is in no way different from the black marketing of conventional weapons; they are sold in open42 and their marketing does not fall under stricter norms and control. Of the reason, countries are venturing into the control of the malware business and are vociferous of considering malware at par ‘trade and transfer’ of conventional weapons.
The possibility of snooping through malware has been mounting. In this era of technology, snooping through malware and other intrusive cyber tools has become the order of the time. Computer activists are inventing fresh cyber tools which take the activities of the non-State actors by providing them with sophisticated snooping programs. Malware has made snooping more sophisticated; and to the advantage, their modus operandi can be secretive, penetrating, and devastatingly effective43. For a country like India, protecting the socio-economic infra from malware attacks and stilling of critical information that by the application of snooping tools remain a serious challenge. Because, for the organisations outside the defence and intelligence sector, it is difficult for them to withstand such attacks44.
A country needs to be ever alerted with best of the snooping and counter-snooping tools at its disposal. India to win the enduring electronic-hybrid warfare, it will not be exaggerated to say that the country must consider planning towards the designing of sophisticated snooping-surveillance tools like malware. While defence options against malware and other snooping tools remain expensive, evolving low-cost defence options against CybEL snooping malware remains a big challenge45. In the face of crippling snooping intrusions, unless the government and intelligence agencies care to develop affordable defensive tools, the defence option will not remain sustainable46. It is argued that the government without hesitation must sanction for their early incubation without a second thought. It is pertinent that, the government must encourage and finance India’s young techno-savvies to develop sophisticated CybEL-snooping tools and counter-snooping Labs better than those used by the State and non-State actors like Amnesty International and others remain active across domains.
COUNTER-SNOOPING OPTIONS
The great game of modern-day snooping and surveillance will never cease to operate in a world of chaos. Snooping will always remain the part and parcel of intelligence missions and the Powerful spying establishment of the advanced countries will ever penetrate47 into India for nefarious purposes. Soon, snooping missions may become so aggressive and competitive that no governments and private sectors will remain beyond the ambit of CybEL snooping perimeter. From this study, it is quite clear that the private parties like Amnesty could plan extensive conspiracies being empowered of CybEL tools and expertise, while an able country like India and her intelligence agencies might fail to smell it before their self-revelation.
The government must care for the reform of its intelligence arms and make them able to face the new emerging threats in the form of extraterritorial CybEL surveillance. In the face of this vastly emerging surveillance culture, India needs to develop necessary counter-intelligence architecture, which will deal with the emerging challenges that are being imposed upon by the non-State and extra-territorial entities. For national security to sustain; India must evolve its counter-intelligence capacity so that it can stand to the super-surveillance of others in the future48. Further, India requires a solid counter-intelligence policy framework49, which will empower India’s intelligence agencies capable of working beyond territorial limits, making all intruders, those who use snooping as their potent weapon, subject to punitive counter-snooping consequences.
In an era of technology, snooping cannot be denounced, rather, it needs to be structured, institutionalised. Now, the country’s intelligence agencies require enough authority and proficient instruments to better in their tasks. The government needs to strengthen the apparatus to snoop quicker, better, and precise; before they create any irreparable impact. In this age of pervasive snooping culture and ‘zero-day exploit50; India’s critical CybEL space will always attract intrusions and manipulations of the State as well as the non-State actors” 51. And, in this emerging set-up, intelligence agencies must have the expertise to snoop and decrypt across realms so that the protection of India’s CybEL space is ensured at the optimum.
THE CRITICAL APERTURE
Snooping has become the inalienable part of the 21st C. art of war by the choice of ‘winnability, regardless of all price; and therefore, for almost all security agencies in the world, it remains the most preferred option. In this era of hybrid warfare, snooping will be employed as a tool of zero-sum game by parties to score advantage to their favour whereas to the detriment of their rivals. Big powers will always use snooping as the potent weapon for effecting regime change in foreign countries52, where the employment of covert options ordained by ‘CybEL snooping art’ will remain the strategy at the lead. At each instance, the bigger powers will attempt to suppress the rise of equitable powers by the employment of radical CybEL snooping missions.
In this era of asymmetry, the contesting powers will also employ CybEL surveillance and snooping against their competitor. The countries like China and Pakistan will always continue their invasion into India’s CybEL space by the means of their snooping nets. In this era of hybrid warfare, when the war is transforming beyond the front of the traditional military-centric barrier to limitless frontages- so do the act and employment of ‘snooping and its options’. Snooping art will be gradually transforming beyond the edge of the national security threshold to a ‘competent tactic’ for advancing insulated gluttony for States, sub-States, and non-State actors equitably. Then private parties, by remaining the active partakers in the game of snooping & counter snooping, will ever seek to maximise their paybacks.
In the world of hybrid warfare, the difference between “official surveillance” and the “snooping-spying activities by the non-State actors” has become blurred. In the face of upcoming asymmetric challenges in the form of pervasive snooping operations, the onus is upon all political stakeholders to care for developing the desired national security norms to demand of the 21st C. hybrid warfare.
When it comes to critical decisions on national security, the wisdom of political leaders are of greater stake. However, it is usual political incompetence that stands hindrance to the sweeping reform into the country’s intelligence architecture. In the face of evolving snooping threats, India’s respective deterrence strategy must evolve accordingly. Unless the country responds to it with all necessary instruments, this will continue to banquet upon spectrums and affect India’s every vital sectors and institution.
Keeping the above discussion in perspective, it is desired that the government would care to deliberate on the entire issue involving the country’s CybEL governance and strongly push for its comprehensive reforms. Further, the Parliament of India must debate the entire issues involving the development, use, sale, transfer, and accusation of snooping tools, and will care to bring related norms into effect. In the era of CybEL warfare, it is argued that the need to go for renewed legislative options is obligatory, which can provide enough edge to the intelligence apparatus in the country to function efficient. Also, an effective legal framework and normative guidelines must be placed so that the adversaries, those who will ever use CybEL snooping in India, are subject to strong counter-snooping consequences.
Snooping has become the inalienable part of the ‘intelligence and counter-intelligence’ game. It can never be stopped or defeated; rather for an able country, the art of conquest will be to keep it under subtle compliance.
Notes:
1 “Intelligence Studies: Types of Intelligence Collection”.
2 According to the Oxford Dictionary
3 “The Ethics of Surveillance”.
4 Collins Dictionary
5 According to the Oxford Dictionary
6 DEFINITION: snooping
7 Vombatkere, S.G.(b).
8 ibid.
9 “The Snowden Revelations”.
10 Ahluwalia, Lt Gen (Dr.) VK
11 Zia Mian.
12 Roy, Prasanto K.
13 Vombatkere, S.G.(b).
14 ibid.
15 “ISRO spy case”.
16 “Malicious Non-state Actors and Contested Space Operations”.
17 Roy, Prasanto K.
18 Bagchi, Sohini.
19 Kannan, Saikiran.
20 Khan, Danish.
21 “What is hybrid warfare?
22 “India bans 59 Chinese apps including TikTok, WeChat, Helo”.
23 DEEKS, ASHLEY.
24 “PRISM is an internal code-name for a top-secret surveillance programme run by the US National Security Agency, with real-time access to user data from Google, Facebook and seven others” (Sottek, T.C. & Janus Kopfstein).
25 “Edward J. Snowden, a 29-year-old NSA contractor, and former CIA employee, leaked details of PRISM to the Guardian and Washington Post newspapers” (Roy, Prasanto K).
26 Greenwald &Saxena.
27 Roy, Prasanto K.
28 Aggarwal, Yogi.
29 “George Soros dubs rise of nationalism in India a ‘setback”.
30 “Massive data leak reveals Israeli NSO Group’s spyware used to target activists, journalists, and political leaders globally”.
31 Rueckert, Phineas.
32 “Gravitas plus: Who is behind Pegasus project?”.
33 Bhatacharjee, K.
34 “Rafale Deal Has ‘Systemic Elements Of International Corruption’.
35 “Massive data leak reveals Israeli NSO Group’s spyware used to target activists, journalists, and political leaders globally”.
36 “The Ethics of Surveillance”.
37 Vombatkere, S.G.(b).
38 “The Ethics of Surveillance”.
39 Vombatkere, S.G.(b).
40 UIDAI has contracted the formation of its Central ID Repository and other critical work to U.S firms having intimate links with the U.S intelligence community (Vombatkere, S.G (a.)).
41 Dash P.
42 Nagaraja& Anderson.
43 Julian & Nepal.
44 Nagaraja& Anderson.
45 Julian & Nepal.
46 Nagaraja& Anderson.
47 Julian & Nepal.
48 Vombatkere, S.G.(b.).
49 Bagchi, Sohini.
50 “What is a Zero-Day Exploit?”
51 Vombatkere, S.G.(b.).
52 ibid.
References:
Aggarwal, Yogi. “Spurt in snooping likely to make govt hostage to private interests”. Deccan Chronicle. Jan 10, 2019 https://www.deccanchronicle.com/opinion/op-ed/100119/spurt-in-snooping-likely-to-make-govt-hostage-to-private-interests.html.
Ahluwalia, Lt Gen (Dr.) VK. “Manoeuvre Warfare in the Information Age”. CENTRE FOR LAND WARFARE STUDIES. Issue No. 231, June 2020. https://www.claws.in/static/IB-231_Manoeuvre-Warfare-in-the-Information-Age.pdf
Bagchi, Sohini. “India Urgently Needs a Robust Cyber Security Framework”. Dec. 09, 2020. https://www.cxotoday.com/security/india-needs-a-robust-cyber-security-framework/.
BASU, NAYANIMA. “Indian missions take precautions in staff hiring, says MEA after Shanghai ‘infiltration’ report”. The Print. 17 December, 2020. https://theprint.in/diplomacy/indian-missions-take-security-precautions-when-hiring-staff-abroad-says-mea/568955/.
Bhatacharjee, K. “NGO that filed complaint against Rafale Deal is partners with George Soros’ Open Society, Misereor and Oxfam among others”. November 24, 2018. https://www.opindia.com/2018/11/ngo-that-filed-complaint-against-rafale-deal-is-partners-with-george-soros-open-society-misereor-and-oxfam-among-others/.
Collins. “Definition of 'snoop'”. Collins Dictionary. https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/snoop
Dash, Padmalochan. “Is the Opposition’s Pegasus fear real?” August 12, 2021. https://www.dailypioneer.com/2021/columnists/is-the-opposition---s-pegasus-fear-real-.html.
DEEKS, ASHLEY. “An International Legal Framework for Surveillance”. VIRGINIA JOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL LAW. Vol. 55:2. https://www.ilsa.org/Jessup/Jessup16/Batch%202/DeeksLegalFramework.pdf
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Acknowledgement
“This work has been funded by the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR), Ministry of Education, New Delhi, under the “ICSSR Post-Doctoral Programme (2019-2020)”
