Abstract:
Good governance refers to task of running the government in an effective manner. Good governance has eight characteristics: Participation, Strategic vision, Rule of Law, Transperancy, Responsiveness, Consensus Orientation, Equity Building, Effectiveness and Efficiency, Accountability. The concept in Indian Statecraft, Diplomacy and polity of rulers being bound by dharma was that of ensuring good governance to people. Rajdharma was code of conduct that was superior to will of ruler and governed all his activities. Good governance as mentioned in ancient Indian scriptures in Sanskrit and Pāli like Bhagvad Geeta, Vedas, Mahabharata, Shantiparva, Nitisar, Ramayana, Arthashastra, Dīgha Nikāya, Jātaka are discussed.
Key Words: Good Governance, Statecraft, Diplomacy, Polity, Ancient Indian Literature, Scriptures, Rajdharma, Dharma
Good governance refers to task of running the government in effective manner. It exhibits eight characteristics: Participation, Strategic vision, Rule of Law, Transparency, Responsiveness, Consensus Orientation, Equity Building, Effectiveness and Efficiency, Accountability. Kamat (2019) contextualised good governance and emphasised that there is no option for good governance. Government must imbibe good governance as part of its regular affairs. It is basic right of all citizens and government is bound to provide it.
There is nothing new in principles and paradigms of good governance stressed today as its idea is as old as Indian civilization. The concept in Indian Statecraft, Diplomacy and polity of rulers, where rulers were bound by dharma or ‘Raj Dharma’, which meant ensuring good governance to people. Raj Dharma was ‘Code of Conduct’ or ‘Rule of Law’ that was superior to will of the ruler and governed all his actions (Kashyap, 2010).
According to Mukerjee (2013) in Indian scriptures good governance is called Raj Dharma, i.e. righteous duty of the king. It means those who are involved in governance must adhere to righteousness and do justice to public. Absence of good governance is root cause of many societal deficiencies. Good governance includes rule of law, participatory decision-making structure, transparency, accountability, responsiveness, equity and inclusiveness.
Dwivedi and Mishra (2007) state that in Brihadaranya Upanishad good governance stresses responsibility of the king to protect Dharma, the public good, so that all citizens get equal opportunity and weak are not exploited and harassed by strong. The king must be compassionate, looking after welfare of all people (Mahabharata, Shanti Parva, Section-V).
Diplomacy is art and practice of conducting negotiations between representatives of states. In India word used for Diplomacy is Kootniti or law of dealings. Diplomacy is important element of statecraft and can be presumed to be as old as concept of the State. Indian civilisation has a long tradition of diplomacy. India had evolved her own ancient concept of statecraft which included elaborate and mutually agreed tradition of diplomacy. It was inclusive among various rulers of India as well as exclusive - with states beyond geographical confines of sub-continent. The practice of diplomacy was initially rooted in concept of Dharma, or morality (Sachdev, 2014). In ancient India good governance was looked as way of life, which demanded appropriate behaviour from all and was based on substratum of ‘dharma’. Concepts of good governance in ancient Indian literature in Sanskrit and Pāli in Bhagvad Geeta, Vedas, Mahabharata, Shantiparva, Nitisar, Ramayana, Arthashastra, Dīgha Nikāya, Jataka are discussed.
Rajadharma - the paramount Dharma
The system of government envisaged by Rajadharma was Rajya (State) headed by raja (king). The provisions in the Dharmasastras, Smritis, covered variety of subjects such as constitution and organisation of Rajya, Kingship, manner of assuming office by the king, code of conduct for kings, succession of kingship, education of young princes, appointment of council of ministers, chief justice and other judges, administrative divisions, and powers and duties of the king. Propounders of Dharmasastra declared that power of the king (State) was absolutely necessary to maintain the society in a state of Dharma which was essential for fulfilment of Artha and Kama. Rajadharma which laid down Dharma of the king was of immense importance.
which means “All Dharmas are merged in Rajadharma, and it is therefore the supreme Dharma” (Mahabharata Shanti Parva 63, 24-25).
Good governance as discussed in Atrisamhita requires obligatory functions of the state as moral behaviour and ethical standards thus:
“To punish the wicked, to protect the good, to enrich the treasury by just methods, to be impartial towards litigants and to protect the kingdom - these are the five yajnas (selfless duties) to be performed by a king [State]” (Atrisamhita-28).
Similar principle has been incorporated by Kautilya in Arthashastra who sums up objects of sovereign power by the king in attainment of good governance thus:
Naatampriyam hitam rajaya prjanaam tu priyam hitam
“In happiness of the subjects, lies happiness of the king; in their welfare his welfare, he shall not do what pleases him, he shall do what pleases his subjects”. This indicates that king should consider himself as ‘public servant’ and be truthful to his duties rather than considering himself to be supreme and making use of his powers for his own benefit. Dharma serves as a beacon for all who desire to exercise their power of office which they come to occupy under the constitutional system honestly and sincerely and inspire them to discharge their duties in a selfless manner so that good governance is translated into action (Bhatia, 2010).
With existence of Rajya and institution of kingship, its founders felt the necessity to define the structure, powers and duties of the king and liability of people to contribute part of their income as taxes, for purposes of defence of the state, to maintain peace and order in society and to undertake various welfare measures for people’s benefit. The necessity was met by making provisions for regulating the constitution and organisation of the state, specifying power and duties of the king and other officers of the State and treating these provisions also as part of Dharma under the title "Rajadharma". In the Dharmasastras and Smritis, Rajadharma is dwelt upon as an independent topic. In view of importance of topic of Rajadharma, several writers wrote treatises on it like Rajanitisara, Dandaniti, Nitisara whose titles indicate that value based society and value based governance is essence of Rajdharma (Jois, 2017; Jois, 2018).
India is most ancient nation which evolved constitutional system in the world with Vyavahara Dharma and Raja Dharma, fundamental duties of the rajya headed by Raja. The institution of ‘Kingship’ was conceived and brought into existence for enforcement of Dharma by use of might of the king and also to punish individuals for contravention of Dharma and protect those in whose favour Dharma lay (Jois, 2017; Jois, 2018). Raj Dharma and Vyavahardharma are two sides of same coin, where, king and subjects have to follow dharma - honestly and conscientiously which would result in good governance (Jois, 2017).
The smritis emphasised that it was king’s responsibility to protect people through proper and impartial administration of justice and which could bring peace, happiness and prosperity to the King as well to people. Any indifference towards this important function, the Smritis cautioned, would bring calamity to the State, the King and to people. Calamity was considered as barometer of good governance and people were considered responsible to take appropriate steps to maintain good governance. Shanti Parva of Mahabharat stresses on Raj Dharma to establish good governance in society by highlighting king’s duty to promote subjects’ welfare (Sharma, 2003).
Dharma - whole and soul of our national life
‘Dharma’ meant righteous code of conduct prescribed for all people to be observed in all spheres (Jois, 2017). The foundation of good governance is Dharma. Major problems like corruption, black-money faced today indicate loss of Dharma, which needs to be inculcated as part of good governance which will lead to existence of orderly society (Jois, 2017, Jois, 2018).
“Truthfulness, to be free from anger, sharing wealth with others (samvibhaga), forgiveness, procreation of children from one’s wife alone (sexual morality), purity, absence of enmity, straightforwardness and maintaining persons dependent on oneself are the nine rules of the Dharma of persons belonging to all the varnas” (Mahabharata Shantiparva 6-7-8).
This verse indicates importance of morality in society at all levels and role and responsibility of each individual for helping good governance.
Manu-Smriti complied by Manu comments on different roles of authorities in a State, Manu stated, "Let the king appoint an Ambassador; the army depends on its Commander; control of subjects (depends) on the army; Government of the kingdom on the King; peace and war on the Ambassador" (Sachdev, 2014).
Manu Smriti brought 'Dharma' under five heads.
Ahimsa satyamasteyam shouchamindriyanigraha
Etam saamaasikam dharma chaaturvarnebravinmanu
“Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (truthfulness), Asteya (not acquiring illegitimate wealth), Shoucham (purity) and Indriyanigraha (control of senses) are common Dharma for all varnas” (Manu Smriti X ).
Supremacy of Dharma
After declaring that Kshatra power (king) was created by the creator, Brihadaranyakopanishad proceeds to state, finding that mere creation of kingship was not enough, Dharma a power superior to that of the king, was created to enable the king to protect people and gives definition of dharma as:
Tadetat kshatrasya kshtram yudharma, Tasmadh dharmatparam nasty
Atho abaliyaan baliyaan samaashamsate dharmena, Yatha rajnya evam
“Dharma is the king of kings. No one is superior to Dharma; Dharma aided by power of the king enables the weak to prevail over the strong” (Brihadaranyakopanishad 1-4-14).
Sarva dandajito loko durlabho hi suchirnara, Dandasya hi bhayatsarva jagobdogaya kalpate
“King’s power to punish, keeps people in righteous path. Fear of punishment only yields worldly happiness and enjoyment” (Manu Smriti, VII-2).
Though Dharma was enforceable by the king, it was considered as superior to king. Under Rajadharma kings were given position of penultimate authority functioning within four corners of Dharma, the ultimate authority (Jois, 2017, Jois, 2018).
Dharma as Secularism:
Dharma is many times misinterpreted as Religion. There is difference between Dharma and Religion. Dharma is ‘righteous code of conduct’ to be followed by all individuals irrespective of their religion. Religion means mode of worship of God by believers belonging to various religions who believe in existence of God in different forms and names. The Right to practice one’s religion was recognised in Raja Dharma as is evidenced from the following verse in Narada Smriti (Dharmokosha P-870)
Pashandanaigam shreni poogvrata ganaadishu, Sanrakshetsamayam raja durge janapade tatha
“The king should afford protection to believers of Veda (Naigamas) as also disbelievers in Veda (Pashandis) and others” (Narada Smriti - Dharmokosha P-870). In Bharat where Vedas were held supreme, disbelievers in Vedas were to be protected in same manner as believers in Vedas , indicating that under Raja Dharma, dharma is secular (Jois, 2017).
Responsibilities of King as the Highest Court:
The Smritis emphasised necessity of the king himself taking responsibility for administration of justice by presiding over the highest court, to dispense justice.
harmashastram puraskrutya praadivavaakmate stita,
Samaahitamati pashyet vyavaharaanukramaat
“The King should try cases with great care, according to law and adhering to opinion of Chief Justice” (Narada Smriti, 1-35, 24-74, Smriti Chandrika, 66 and 89)
Equality
Charter of equality (Samanata) is found incorporated in the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda.
Ajeshtasho akanishthaas ete, Sa brataro vaarudha soubhagaya
“No one is superior (ajyestaso) or inferior (akanishtasa). All are brothers (ete bhrataraha). All should strive for interest of all and should progress collectively (sowbhagaya sam va vridhuhu)”. (Rigveda Mandala-5, Sukta-60, Mantra-5)
Samaani va aakruti samaana hrudayani, Samaanamastu vo mano yathaa va sushasati
“Let there be oneness in your resolutions, hearts and minds. Let the strength to live with mutual co-operation be firm in you all”. (Rigveda Mandala – 10, Sukta-191, Mantra-4).
Samaani prapaa sah vonnabhaga, Samaane yoktre sah voh yunjimn,
Araa nabhimi vabhitaa
“All have equal rights to articles of food and water. The yoke of chariot of life is placed equally on shoulders of all. All should live together in harmony supporting one another like spokes of a wheel of chariot connecting its rim and hub” (Atharvanaveda – Samjnana Sukta).
Implementing Policy as ordained in Dharma
Our scriptures have laid emphasis on implementing policy as ordained in Dharma. To quote:
“Tasmacchastram pramanam te karykaryavyavasthitau
Gyatva shastra vidhanoktam karma kartum iharhasi.”
“One ought to understand what duty is, and what is forbidden in the commands laid down by the scriptures. Knowing such rules and regulations, one should behave as ordained by scriptures” (Bhagavada-Geeta, Chapter XVI, Verse 24).
There is a great message on good governance in a verse of the Chandogya Upanishad. What is the source of human work-efficiency? That is the question, to which Chandogya verse gives the following answer, which is essence of good governance.
“Yadeva vidyaya karoti, sraddhaya, upanisada, tadeva viryavattaram bhavati.”(Chandogya Upanishad, 1.1.10). Yadeva karoti-whatever is done; through knowledge-what we call today the ‘know-how’. The first thing to acquire is the ‘know how’ of a task. Is that enough? No, says the Upanishad, and adds: shraddhaya-through shraddha-faith or conviction; there must be faith in the great urges and longings of man in front of me, faith in the work I am called upon to do to fulfil those urges, and faith in myself-atma-shraddha-in my capacity to rise to the occasion. Even these two are not enough. A third quality is also necessary, namely, upanisada, through deep thinking and contemplation. Actions done with these three energies behind them alone become not only efficient, viryavat, but more and more efficient, viryavattaram, says the verse (Swami Ranganathanada, 2003).
Path of righteousness
The Vedas inspire us to speak the truth and follow the path of righteousness:
“Satyam Vada! Dharmam chara!” – (Taittiriya Upanishad, i – II)
Path of truthfulness
The Journey of Life bestowing the path of truthfulness is said to be supreme:
“Tasmat satyam paramam vadanti” – (Mahanarayana Upanishad, lxxvii – I)
Truth alone wins, truth is said to be foundation of mother earth. In order to say that you follow governance, you need to be truthful, transparent and righteous. For this purpose, your thought, speech action have to be the same.
“Tasmat yatpurusho manasabhi gacchati! Tad vaca vadati! Tad karmana karoti!” – (Taittiriya – Aranyaka i-90)
Values
The Bhagavad Geeta specifies twenty values in Chapter XIII (8 to 12), which are very relevant for any administrator in modern context as well (Aishwarya and Sima Kumari, 2012):
• Amanitvam – humility
• Adambhitvam – Pridelessness
• Ahimsa – Non – violence
• Kshanti – Tolerance
• Arjavam – Simplicity
• Acaryopasanam – Service to the teacher
• Saucam – Cleanliness
• Sthairyam – Steadfastness
• Atmavinigraha – self control
• Vairakyam – Renunciation
• Anahankara – Absence of ego
• Asakti – Non – attachment
• Anabhisvanga putradaragrhadishu – Detachment towards son and wife
• Janmamrityu jaravyadhi duhkha dosa anudarsanam – Reflection of sufferings of Life – death, old age diseases and distress
• Nityam Samacittatvam istanistopapattishu – Equanimity amidst pleasant and unpleasant happenings
• Mayi ca ananyayogena bhakti avyabhicarini – Constant devotion towards God.
• Vivikta desa sevitvam – Love for solitary life
• Aratir janasamsadi – Detachment towards company of people
• Adhyatmajnana nityatvam – Understanding the importance of self – realisation
• Tattvajananartha darsanam – Philosophical search of the ultimate truth.
The Vedas, which are storehouse of our ancient value systems, talk about following key values as very important (Aishwarya and Sima Kumari, 2012):
• Satyam – Truth;
• Tapah – Austerity;
• Damah – Sense Control;
• Samah – Tranquility of mind;
• Dharma – Righteousness;
• Danam – Charity;
• Daya – Mercy;
• Nyasa – Renunciation.
Ethical Philosophy
The Brthadaranyaka Upanishad sums up a whole ethical philosopohy in three words:
• Daammyat: Self Control
• Data: Charity
• Dayadhvam: Compassion (Aishwarya and Sima Kumari, 2012).
Dharma
Manusmriti states: “Self – possession, patience, self – control, integrity, purity, restraint, intelligent, truthfulness, absence of anger – these are the marks of Dharma.” He points out that non – injury to other beings and truthfulness, among others, represents the essence of Dharma. The whole of Dharma, says Yajnavalkya, consists of truthfulness, non – stealing, absence of anger, modesty, purity, intelligence, self – possession, self – control, restraint of the sense and learning. “Let the scriptures be thy authority in determining what ought to be done or what ought not to be done. Knowing what hath been declared by the ordinances of the scriptures, thought to work in this world” (Bhagavada-Geeta, Ch. XVI-24).
Governance in Ramayana
Ramarajya as described in Ramayana had all characteristics of democracy. Inspite there being no electoral procedure those days public opinion was taken into account and given due importance. Inspite of no written constitution of Ramarajya, citizens enjoyed right of equality and avenues of development were open to all. In eyes of law, all were same. Everyone enjoyed socio-religious freedom. Although Rama was ruler, every person had right to speak his or her mind. Ramarajya covered all aspects of democracy and set high standard of ethical and moral conduct (Hema, 2010). In Ramayana, Lord Rama sent Hanuman and Angad as his envoys to King Ravana to persuade him to avoid war. Although King Ravana rejected these entreaties and wanted to kill envoys, he was prevented from doing so as envoys were inviolable under diplomatic practice (Sachdev, 2014).
Governance in Mahabharata
Mahabharata is first Indian treatise on science of governance. There is one huge Rajdharama section discussing governance besides Sabhaparvam and Vanaparvam. King will be head of state and will be responsibile to protect people and their properties. He was considered as servant of people. Dharma and justice are given utmost importance. There are guidelines for law and order, tax and revenue collection, military functioning and the republic (Hema, 2010).
Swami Bodhanand (2010) analyses Dharma in Mahabharata in context of governance as:
i. nyayayukta arambham dharma – “Any undertaking based on justice and fairness”.
ii. na tat parasya samdadhyat pratikulam yadatmanah esha samkshepato dharmah – “Dharma means not doing to others what is unpleasant to oneself” (Mahabharata - Anusasana Parva, 113-8).
iii. dharma yatha sakti kritah – “Dharma is action agreeing with one’s knowledge and power”.
iv. veda pratyaksha-acaram pramanam tattreyam yadi jijnasa na kartavya dharmasya paritarkanat – “The three sources of understanding dharma are scriptures, direct experience and conduct of good people; so logical enquiry is not advised in matters of dharma” (Mahabharata - Anusasana Parva, 162-18).
v. ahimsa-satyam-akrodha-danam etat catushtayam ajaatasatro sevasva dharmam esa sanatanah – “Four components of eternal dharma are non-violence, truth, non-anger and charity” (Mahabharata - Anushasana Parva, 162-23).
vi. damena sadrisam dharma naanyam lokeshu sushruma – “There is no dharma other than self control” (Mahabharata - Shanti Parva, 160-10).
Self-control of ruler and ruled is central to awareness and practice of dharma. According to Mahabharata dharma as rajaniti is based on three factors – danda (governance), raksha (legal protection) and bala (armed force). Good governance and rule of law are fundamental to practice of dharma (Swami Bodhanand, 2010).
In Mahabharata, Lord Krishna himself played role of mediator to avoid hostilities between Pandavas and Kaurvas. War of Mahabharata was preceded by diplomacy as both sides sent envoys around to form military alliances. War itself was Dharmayuddha (War of Righteousness) with rules with diplomatic contact being maintained among two warring sides (Sachdev, 2014).
Good Governance as in Shanti Parva in Mahabharat
After the Great War, King Yudhishthira approached Bhishma who was lying on a bed of arrows and requested him to give a discourse on duties and morality of king, officials and public:
1. The eternal duties of kings are to make their subjects happy, to observe truth, and to act sincerely (Shanti Parva, Chapter LVIII, Verse 11).
2. One becomes a king for protecting Dharma and enhancing virtuous acts, and not for acting capriciously (Shanti Parva, Chapter XC, Verse 3).
3. Righteousness is called Dharma. It is Dharma that restraints and limits all evil acts of men …therefore, a king should follow the dictates of Dharma (Shanti Parva, Chapter XC, Verse 18, 19).
4. A king guided by conducting righteously (vyarharen shuddham) and devoting his life in service of his subjects acquires fame and immortality both here and hereafter (Shanti Parva , Chapter LXXV, Verse 2).
5. Formation of good governance is Dharma. King, ministers and employees who have taken oath of their offices to upholding Dharma and to act in accordance with common good, must not act unjustly or unethically so as to secure their private good through selfishness. (Shanti Parva, Chapter LXXV, Verse 16-17).
6. The main purpose of king is to bolster righteousness and to be free from indolence and desires one should know that king is Lokashya Rakshita (defender of all) (Shanti Parva, Chapter XC, Verse 3).
7. Care and well-being of all is the essence of Dharma which is duty of the king to uphold and protect (Shanti Parva , Chapter XC, Verse 19).
Pravrittim Cha Nivrittim Cha Karya Karya Bhayabhaye
Boudham Moksham Cha Ya Vatti Buddhisha Partha Satvika
“This means accountability is mixed with duty consciousness and capacity to differentiate between right and wrong and between desirable and undesirable, between what is to be feared and what is not, what is obligatory and what is permitted. Only people with such capacities would be able to take right decisions and move on the righteous path”.
Good Governance in Buddhist literature
The word ‘Dhammappasāsana’ in Pāli means ‘good governance’. ‘Dhammappasāsana’ is made of two words, ‘Dhamma’ (virtue / law / righteous) and ‘Pasāsana’ (governance) which means law of governance. Teaching of the Buddha depicts practice of good governance and promotion of development (Singh, 2015).
In Āgganna Sutta of Dīgha Nikāya, the Buddha stresses that evolution of society begins as result of necessity and not at will of any divine forces. The rājā or Khattiya are selected on account of their righteousness and ability. People have freedom to choose the most virtuous and able man to be their leader. He may be overthrown from kingship if he is later known to be immoral and incapable. At Jātaka I, 132, the word Sammutideva, refers to a king which means ‘god in public opinion’, not god by birth. More importantly, once he ascends the throne, it does not mean that he will be respected by all people wholeheartedly without opponents. To guarantee that he will be widely accepted and revered by subjects, the king must strictly follow various virtues mentioned in the Pāli Canonical texts. At Jātaka V, 378, the Buddha states that a good king has to follow strictly the “tenfold virtue of the ruler” (Dasavidha-Rājadhamma). It provides flow-charts of responsibility for the king as follows:
• Dāna (Charity) Being prepared to sacrifice one’s own pleasure for well being of public.
• Sila (morality): Practicing physical and mental morals and being good example of others.
• Pariccaga (altruism): Being generous and avoiding selfishness, practicing altruism.
• Ajjava (honesty): Being honest and sincere towards others, performing one’s duties with loyalty and sincerity.
• Maddava (gentleness): Having gentle temperament, avoiding arrogance and never defaming others.
• Tapa (self restraining): Destroying passion and performing duties without indolence.
• Akkodha (non anger): Being free from hatred and remaining calm in midst of confusion.
• Avihimsā (non violence): Exercising non violence, not being vengeful.
• Khanti (forbearance): Practicing patience, and trembling to serve public interests.
• Avirodhana (uprightness): Respecting opinions of other persons, avoiding prejudice and promoting public peace and order (Singh, 2015).
At Digha Nikāya, II, 196, and III, 223, the king must not have any slanted views against his subjects as ruler of the country. He must spread the Brahmavihāra – Four Sublime States of Mind towards all living creatures - animals and humans:
• Mettā: Caring, loving kindness displayed to all.
• Karunā: Compassion or mercy, the special kindness shown to those who suffer.
• Muditā: sympathetic joy, being happy for others, without a trace of envy.
• Upekkhā: equanimity or levelness, the ability to accept others as they are.
At Digha Nikāya III, 282, 288, the king must try to avoid four biases or prejudices (āgati) against his subjects, no matter where they live and what colour skin they may have, namely:
• Chandagati – biases because of like;
• Dosagati – biases because of dislike;
• Mohagati – biases because of delusion or stupidity;
• Bhayagati – biases because of fear.
This means he must take care of every subject in his kingdom fairly.
At Digha Nikāya III, 61, the Buddha addresses duties or virtues of an authentic universal king (Cakkavattovatta) or virtues that makes a simple king a universal one. First, the king must rule the country with righteousness. Second, the king must protect all people living in his country with right principles and uphold justice all times. Third, he must not let immorality spoil his kingdom. Fourth, he must provide financial aid to those who are in need of it to improve their quality of life. Fifth, he must approach from time to time, learned and virtuous recluses to get better understanding of Dhamma for advancement of moral practices (Singh, 2015)
When characteristics of good governance are compared with virtues of a good king as explained in Buddhism, many similarities are observed:
1. Participation in modern good governance corresponds to what is called in Buddhism as avoidance of four āgatis (prejudices because of like, dislike, delusion or stupidity and fear) because king of the Buddhist Dhammarajā system must base himself on merit system, allowing representatives of his people of all colour, ranks etc. to help him rule the country.
2. Rule of Law is equivalent to the king’s observation of sila (morality) which could refer to the law, constitutions, rules and regulations in the country.
3. Transparency corresponds to Ajjava (honesty), Avirodhana or Avirodha (absence of obstruction) or Sila (morality) because the king must be honest and rule the country following righteous principles. He must not suppress others who do not agree with him and must not transgress the law, constitutions and rules and regulations himself. The word Sīla is divided into three aspects (Sucarita), namely Kāyasucarita (good conduct in action), Vacisucarita (good conduct in speech) and Manosu- Carita (good conduct in mind).
4. Responsiveness is equal to loving-kindness (Mettā) and compassion (Karuṇā) towards all subjects without any prejudices or biases.
5. Consensus-oriented Approach is same as what is called in Pāli as Yebhuyyasikā, which means that the king must not exercise his power at will.
6. Equity and Inclusiveness is to make decisions which affect people in the kingdom in accordance with vote of majority. It also means that king must be honest (Ajjava) enough to accept others’ viewpoints, must be tolerant to what he does not like (Akkodha), must be patient (Ahanti), must not impose obstructions upon others (Avirodha or Avirodhana), and listens to that which the majority votes for (Lokādhipateyya).
7. Effectiveness and Efficiency corresponds to self-sacrifice (Pariccaga) because the king has to sacrifice his own personal happiness for sake of others and works hard for happiness and welfare of the all. He must be patient (Khanti) and maintain good temperament no matter how difficult his responsibilities are, and must strive for betterment of his kingdom by abandoning personal luxuries and self-indulgences and living a simple, moderate life (Tapa).
8. Accountability implies honesty (Ajjava), moral integrity (Sīla) and patience (Khanti). The king must not impose any obstructions on others, because he does not agree with them (Avirodhana) (Singh, 2015).
In the Jātaka, the Buddha had given to rules for Good Government, known as 'Dasa Rājadhamma '. The rules are as follows:
1) be liberal and avoid selfishness,
2) maintain high moral character,
3) be prepared to sacrifice one's own pleasure for the well-being of subjects,
4) be honest and maintain absolute integrity,
5) be kind and gentle,
6) lead a simple life for subjects to emulate.
7) be free from hatred of any kind,
8) exercise non-violence,
9) practice patience,
10) respect public opinion to promote peace and harmony.
The Buddhist perspective of governance refers to a sacrifice oriented system of governance which is characteristically a system of good governance based on environmental dynamics, goal, work, perception of human being, behavioural code and institutions with grassroots level system of participation and accountability. Having explored meaning of good governance, democracy or a just society cannot be possible without strict adherence to principles of good governance or Buddhist Rājadhamma. For a country to be happy, it must have a just government. Social justice and social welfare are two features of ideal society of Buddhism where all activities including agriculture and industry should be just (Dhammika) through righteous means (Dhammena) and country’s ruler trains in righteousness with ten royal duties (Dasa Rājadhamma) (Singh, 2015).
Governance in Arthashastra
Chanakya’s Arthashashtra, occupies centre stage in Indian diplomacy. Chanakya, also known as Kautilya, was Prime Minister of Emperor Chandragupta, founder of Gupta dynasty. Although Chanakya’s Arthashashtra, is mainly concerned with statecraft, nearly one-fifth of it covers foreign policy and diplomacy (Sachdev, 2014). ‘Arthashastra’ is unique among ancient classics on ‘dandaniti’ or ‘Science of Polity’. Arthashastra embodies theory of state, theory of Rajadharma and dandaniti, theory of kingship, theory of statecraft and government and theory of social order. Arthashastra is concerned with acquisition and preservation of dominion. The text of Arthashastra is divided into 15 books or parts and 150 Chapters. Book I discusses problems connected with Kingship. Book II gives an exhaustive picture of civil administration. Book III and IV discuss civil, criminal and personal laws. Book V discusses duties and responsibilities of courtiers and retainers of the king. Book VI deals with nature and function of seven prakritis (elements or organs) of the state. Book VII to XV discuss different problems connected with foreign policy, warcraft, relationship with different states etc. Arthashastra is secular in character and is free from the influence of Dharmashastra and a monumental work on politics (Kaushik, 2012). Chaudhary (1971) states that Arthashastra is study of monarchy in relation to expansion of dominion of monarch. The ideal of Kautilyan monarchy is universal sovereignty through conquest. Chaudhary (1971:441) states that “to Kaultilya, Dandaniti meant stability and welfare of Aniviksiki, Trayi (three Vedas) and Varta (economics and commerce). These two words denoted concept of government and its moral implications”. Godse (2016) states that Kautilya explains criteria for good governance as follows: People forming government should be empowered to design an administration that can compel community to be alert and socially committed.
In Arthashastra Kautilya prescribes for specific need and uses, administrative procedures, indications of good governance, which have retained their relevance till date in India. In an age of monarchy and legitimised ascriptive inequality, Arthashastra describes the king as servant of state who would harbour no personal likes and dislikes. Arthashastra sets before the ruler, goal of expansion ending in conquest of world and describes ways of attaining that goal.
Ruler must aim to be a Vijigishu, one desirous of conquering other territories aiming to ensure Yogakshema and Lokasamgraha of subjects. Yogakshema means to ensure welfare of state and subjects implying happiness, prosperity and peace of people to achieve Lokasamgraha which means to do what is beneficial to people. as various, different, and sequential means to achieve an end. Kautilya used word ‘dharma’ in personal and social conduct. Kautilya stated that good governance and stability go together. There is stability if rulers are responsive, responsible, accountable and removable, otherwise there would be instability (Hema, 2010). Four methods were advocated for settlement of disputes – Sama (conciliation), Dama (appeasement), Bheda (dividing), and Danda (use of force) to be employed as last resort (Sachdev, 2014).
Sharma (2003) states that Arthashastra is the most important treatise on ancient Indian administration having connotations for present day institutional arrangements for delivery of public services. King was held accountable for:
• Achievement oriented behaviour in terms of well being, happiness and prosperity and security of subjects. judicious use of authority.
• Pursuit of happiness of people.
• Use of reason and experience as basis of decision.
• Shirking of work to be identified and punished.
• Designing appropriate audit system to prevent corruption.
• Strength of character, intelligence, perseverance of civil servants.
• Uprightness, friendliness and firmness of devotion in dealing with others.
According to Vijayaraghavan and Jayaram (1994) Kautilya wrote Arthashastra as a practical manual of statecraft and administration for all times. One theory is the Saptang theory which concerns internal organisation of the state, which had saptang or seven organs.
1. King or Swami
2. Minister or Amatya
3. Territory or Janapada
4. Fort or Durga
5. Treasury or Kosha
6. Military or Danda
7. Allies or Mitra (Vijayaraghavan and Jayaram, 1994).
Goal of king’s foreign policy should be expansion of kingdom. Kautilya delineates Shadguna or six types of foreign policies (Vijayaraghavan and Jayaram, 1994):
1. Sandhi – Policy of peace through making treaties.
2. Vigraha – Policy of hostility or War.
3. Asana – Policy of remaining quiet.
4. Yana – Policy of invasion.
5. Sansraya – Policy of taking shelter with another King.
6. Daidhibhav – Policy of peace with one king and war with another at same time.
Ranjan (2013) states that Kautilya recommends unscrupulous tactics only against those who would subvert the social order, and he is aware that power, if not restrained in its use, can be destructive of itself. Kautilya was sensitive of the economic basis of power and opposed any decentralising tendencies that would weaken the control of the state over the economic life of society. Kautilya states that prosperity rests on goodwill of the people.
Sachdev (2014) discusses foresighted nature of Chanakya’s recommendations. The concept of "Raj Mandala” is central to Chanakya’s Foreign Policy construction of State. Raj Mandala is matrix comprising of maximum of 12 types of states and Arthashashtra prescribes best ways of dealing with each of them. Arthashastra emphasised that foreign relations be determined by rationale calculation of self-interest. Chanakya preferred peace over war and urged humane treatment of conquered soldiers and subjects. Arthashashtra provides comprehensive advice on conduct of diplomatic practice to implement it. In selecting people for diplomatic missions, one must choose persons who are "loyal, honest, skilled, possessing good memory, fearless and eloquent". Arthashashtra discussed four classifications of envoys:
• Duta (Ambassador Extraordinary):
• Nisrishtartha (Minister Plenipotentiary);
• Parimitarhah (Charge d'Affaires);
• Sasanarhah (Diplomatic Messenger / Special Envoy).
The most notable contribution of Kautilya to political thought is his Rajmandala theory. Rajmandala as per Kautilya is a circle consisting of an aggregate of kings, friendly and hostile group around figure of central king very significantly called jigigishu. The dictionary meaning of this is one who is desirous of victory. It contemplates a system of states bound by hostile, friendly and neutral relations with ambitious potentate as its central figure.
Kautilya’s Arthashastra is different from rest of the ancient works both in its plan and purpose. He is not merely a preserver of old political ideas but creator of new ones as well. He is impatient with existing unsystematic and chaotic theories of polity and removes the cobwebs in political thinking through his incisive logic firm grasp in realities of statecraft. The Arthashastra is not merely compendium of dharma principles. It is manual of practical politics as well.
Governance in Nitisara and Shukranitishastra
Nitisara of Kamandaka is an abridgement of Arthashastra. Two-thirds of Kamandaklya Nitisara relates to foreign policy and conduct of hostilities. Shukranitisara is wider in scope than Arthashastra. Sukra discusses actual mechanism of government, organisation of power and theory of empire. Ministers have to be consulted on all questions of policy (Ranjan, 2013).
Epilogue
Good Governance is not new concept for India. Ancient Indian scriptures are replete with numerous diplomatic instances. Today, the need is to rediscover our cultural heritage, customs, practices, beliefs and values painstakingly enunciated in ancient scriptures. The essence of good governance by ruler, Raj Dharma has been strict code of conduct, sense of duty and service to subjects, willingness to sacrifice for sake of upholding moral values, fair play and justice and in process of reinventing government, we have to fall back on the rich knowledge contained in our ancient scriptures such as Ramayana, Bhagvada Geeta, Shanti Parva, Arthashastra etc. Good governance is the ethos of Indian culture inherited through scriptures.
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